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postavka opisa za srbiju
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Suva planina Kosmovacko
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SREDNJEVEKOVNI GRAD POBED...
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mesto UM Niški kraj
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Kanjon reke Jerme
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Kladovo i okolina
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Vranje, Vladičin Han, gre...
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| Delcevo - Makedonija |
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Poslato od: Deni_val - 27-11-2011, 12:35 AM - Forum: Razgovori i legendi za zakobano bogatsto
- Odgovora (3)
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Eee braco evo kako se vadi 30 tona zlato, naravno to uzme nasa postena Drzava ako uopste prijave da su nasle nesto, mada ako nema nista ne bi kopali oni celu nedelju sa bagerima i den i noc sa okruzenje od specijalcima na radius od 500 metra od tog tunela.. Pronasli su tunel, otkopavaju ga sada.. Prica je da su u drugi svetski rat nemci tamo gradili prugu i da su zatrpali celi kamion zlata od 30 tona od bankama u Atina i Kairo...
http://sitel.com.mk/dnevnik/makedonija/a...delchevsko
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| RIMSKI PERIOD |
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Poslato od: zmija - 20-11-2011, 07:03 PM - Forum: Antika
- Nema Odgovora
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Rimski period
Prodor Rimljana na Balkansko poluostrvo počeo je krajem 3. veka pre n. e. U rimsko-ilirskim i rimsko-makedonskim ratovima bile su pokorene Ilirija i Makedonija. Prvi ilirski rat (229-228. godine pre n.e.) uspešno je vođen protiv kraljice Teute i ilirskih gusara na Jadranskom i Jonskom moru. Rimski protektorat nad više ilirskih vazala nije bio dovoljno jak, te su Iliri obnovili gusarenje što je izazvalo novi rat 219. godine pre n.e. Ovaj pobedonosni rat Rimljani nisu uspeli da iskoriste u pravom smislu te reči, jer su bili zauzeti ratom sa Hanibalom. Tek, znatno kasnije u trećem ratu 168. godine pre n.e. protiv ilirskog kralja Gentija uspeli su konačno da pobede Ilire i nametnu im vlast i danak.
Pokoravanje Makedonije takođe je teklo kroz tri rata (215-205. godine pre n.e. 200-197. godine pre n.e. i treći 171-168. godine pre n.e.) Makedonija je konačno postala rimska provincija 148. godine pre n.e.
Dalji rimski prodori vršeni su u pravcu Dunava i Panonije. Na prvom pravcu prepreka su bili keltski Skordisci i Dardanci. Trogodišnji uspešni rat protiv Dardanaca omogućio je Gaju Skriboniju Kurionu da 73. godine pre n.e. bude prvi Rimljanin koji je ugledao Dunav, došavši sa svojom legijom na njegove obale.
U vreme Oktavijana (Avgusta) vršeno je pokoravanje plemena u Posavini i Bosni. No, to nije išlo lako; sledio je tzv. panonski rat 13-9. godine pre n.e., a potom je izbio masovni ustanak panonsko-dalmatinskih plemena od 6-9. godine n.e. Najveću snagu ustanicima su davali sremski Breuci i Desidijati s gornjeg toka Bosne na čelu kojih su bili dva Batona. Avgustov naslednik Tiberije uspeo je da skrši ustanak i nametne vlast plemenima od Dunava do Jadrana.
Sa teritorija srednjeg Balkana Rimljani su počeli da dolaze u dodir sa Germanima (Domicijanovi ratovi protiv Markomana i Kvada), Saramtima i Dačanima. Imperator Trajan je preduzeo dva uspešna pohoda na Dakiju (101-102: 105-107. godine n.e.) i pretvorio je u provinciju. Ovim pohodima prethodili su zamašni građevinski radovi. Prvo je prosečen put kroz Đerdap 100. godine, a sledeće je prokopan kanal kod Sipa da bi se omogućila slobodna plovidba Dunavom. Čuveni Trajanov most kod Kostolca izgrađen je 105. godine. Za vreme imperatora Trajana Rimsko Carstvo imalo je najveći opseg.
Na Balkanskom poluostrvu Rimljani su organizovali velike provincije: Dalmaciju (obuhvatalo je jadransko primorje i današnju BiH), Panoniju, Gornju Meziju (teritorija današnje Srbije) i Makedoniju. Glavni oslonac rimske vlasti bila je vojska. U pomenutim provincijama stalno su bile stacionirane dve legije - IV Flavia u Singidunumu (Beogradu) i VII Klaudia u Viminacijumu (Kostolcu). Vojnički logori na granici (limesu) postali su tačke oko kojih su vremenom nikli gradovi, a rudnici, banje i izuzetno plodna zemlja u unutrašnjosti bili su takođe jezgra nastanka gradskih naselja. Ovi gradovi imali su dosta zajedničkih urbanističkih elemenata: forum, dve glavne ulice koje su se sekle pod pravim uglom, javne građevine (bazilika, hramovi), stambene i trgovačke delove, kupatila (terme), bedeme oko grada i groblja. Gradovi su bili povezani putevima iz privrednih ali i vojničkih razloga. Inače, u celom Rimskom Carstvu saobraćaj je bio dobro organizovan.
U balkanskim provincijama Rimljani su posebnu pažnju poklanjali rudarstvu, pa bi se čak moglo reći da je celokupni život bio u znaku te privredne grane. U rudnicima su radili robovi i oslobođenici, a bili su pod strogom kontrolom državne administracije.
Domorodačko stanovništvo živelo je tradicionalnim životom stočara i ratara. NJegova romanizacija (porimljavanje) bila je spora, ali su celokupnim integrisanjem u rimsko društvo postojano su se gubile etničke karakteristike.
Na planu religije vladalo je veliko šarenilo. Starosedelačka mnogobožačka religija bila je na udaru rimske i grčke religije, ali i raznih verovanja koja su širili došljaci sa Istoka. Odlika svih ovih religija bila je u težnji za socijalnom pravdom što je utiralo put hrišćanstvu.
Napadi varvara na severnu rimsku granicu postali su, u dugom nizu godina, redovna pojava. Stoga su dunavski limes, a i njegovo zaleđe, počeli da igraju neobično važnu ulogu. To se ogledalo u tome što su snažne legije, sa ovog dela Carstva, svoje zapovednike izvikivale za careve. Varvarski pritisak bio je toliki da je imperator Aurelijan (270-275) shvatio svu benzadežnost odbrane Dakije i prepustio je varvarima. Od tog momenta počinje osipanje Rimske Imperije. Imperator Dioklecijan (285-305) uveo je sistem zajedničke vlade četvorice careva na osnovu koga se jedan od četvorice morao stalno nalaziti blizu limesa. Zahvaljujući tome grad Sirmijum je stvarno postao jedna od prestonica. Gamzigrad u gornjoj Meziji (istočna Srbija) verovatno je nastao iz istih razloga. Sagrađen je početkom 4. veka kao vladarska rezidencija Dioklecijanovog savladara Galerija. Na isti način nastao je na mestu starog Vizanta, na Bosforu, Konstantinopolj.
Ratovi protiv varvara (Sarata i Gota) slabili su Carstvo i u vojnom i privrednom pogledu.
Zbog opadanja proizvodnje smanjena je trgovina, a varvarski pljačkaški upadi uništavali su stanovništvo i poljoprivredu. Najteže posledice ostavila je najezda Huna pod Atilom 375. godine i Gota posle njihove pobede kod Hadrijanopolja (Jedrena) 378. godine. Od tih vremena varvari se nastanjuju na teritoriji Rimskog Carstva. Teškoće upravljanja Carstvom nagnale su cara Teodosija da 395. godine izvrši njegovu podelu na Zapadno (središte Rim) i Istočno (Konstantinopolj) carstvo. Krajnji, istorijski ishod varvarskih razaranja i pljački bio je pad Zapadnog carstva 476. godine.
Rimska vladavina i civilizacija na Balkanskom poluostrvu, posebno na teritoriji koju će naseliti Srbi, ostavila je duboki trag. O tome svedoče ostaci materijalne kulture, sačuvani do danas, ili otkriveni arheološkim iskopavanjima. Fotografije koje se objavljuju u ovom poglavlju samo su mali deo tog blaga, ali dovoljno upečaljive da se može zamisliti izgled i život tog sveta.
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| RIMSKI CARSKI NOVAC 1 |
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Poslato od: zmija - 20-11-2011, 06:41 PM - Forum: Antika
- Odgovora (9)
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RIMSKI CARSKI NOVCI
Na rimskim carskim novcima nalaze se (uz vrlo rijetke iznimke) natpisi i likovi glava vladara ili članova njihovih obitelji. Natpis na aversu novca često objašnjava lik, odnosno glavu osobe na njemu prikazane. Ako je novac većeg formata obično je i natpis dulji. Natpisi su redovno dulji i na početku vladanja pojedinog vladara, a tokom daljnjih godina redovito se skraćuju. To pravilo vrijedi za rimski carski novac u načelu sve do polovice III.st.n.e. Otada natpisi postaju sve kraći tako da se u IV st.n.e. (poslije smrti cara Konstantina I. Velikog) svode na kratku tipiziranu formulu. Kad ličnost jednog cara postane dovoljno poznata podanicima skraćuje se njegovo ime, ali se zato tokom njegovog vladanja povećavaju njegovi atributi i broj počasnih službi. Takvim povećanjem odnosno promjenom u titulaturi na novcima pojedinog vladara mogu se utvrditi i važni historijski podaci o događajima u vrijeme njegovog vladanja.
Kao primjer - natpis na aversu jednog novca cara Domicijana (81-96) sa razriješenim kraticama carskog naslova: IMP(erator) CAES(ar) DOMIT (ianus) AUG(ustus) GERM(anicus) P(ontifex) M(aximus) TR(ibunicia) P(otestate) XI(undecimum) IMP(erator) XXI (vigesimoprimo) C0(n)S(ul) XVI (undecimosexto) CEN(sor) P(erpetuus) P(ater) P (atriae).
Od Augusta do Dioklecijana (31- 305.n.e.) na čelu natpisa nalazi se redovito titula IMP(erator)vladar..To je najtipičniji naziv za cara, a nastao je još za republike iz naziva, koji je podjeljivan onom vojskovođi koji je izvojevao pobjedu nad vanjskim neprijateljem, i nakon "aklamacije" (izvikivanja) na bojnom polju taj mu je naziv bio potvrđen od Senata. Ovu povremenu podjelu naziva "imperator" pojedinim vojskovođama podijelio je rimski senat nakon bitke kod Munde (45 pr.n.e.). kao doživotni počasni naslov Juliju Cezaru s time, da ga može prenijeti i na svoje nasljednike. Od Cezarovog posinka Oktavijana pa do Nerona nose taj naslov svi članovi Julijsko-Klaudijake kuće carske. Nakon Nerona nose ga i svi daljnji carevi kao "predime" (praenomen). Samo pojedini od njih navode u svom naslovu taj naziv dva puta, i u tom slučaju onaj drugi označuje starinsku "aklamaciju" vojske na bojnom polju.
CAES(ar) Izvorno je to bio pridjevak ("prezime") obitelji (gens) Julia, kojoj je pripadao i veliki Cezar, a koji ga je adopcijom prenio na avog posinka Oktavija (Oktavijana), s kojega je prešao na sve članove Julijsko-Klaudijske kuće. Kod Julijevaca ono nadomješta ime Julius, a kod Klaudijevaca dodano je nakon obiteljskog imena Claudius kao prezime. Nakon Nerona dolazi na novcima redovito iza naziva imperator, a od Hadrijana pored redovitog naslova u titulaturi cara daje se kao jedini naslov prijestolonasljedniku (u tom slučaju uvijek na kraju naslova). Na novcima se taj naziv u tom smislu javlja prvi put s Elijem (138) Hadrijanovim prijestolonasljednikom a završava sa Julijanom Apostatom (363) nasljednikom cara Konstancija II.
Od Gete (211.n.e.) na dalje javlja se pred njim i oznaka "nobilissimus" (najplemenitiji, najugledniji). Dok je do Dioklecijana uz cara postojao samo jedan cezar, on je uz svog suvladara cara Maksimijana postavio dva cezara i tako formirao "tetrarhlju" (vlada četvorice). Najveći broj cezara imenovao je Konstantin I. Veliki, i to četiri svoja sina i nećaka Delmacija. Iz imena cezar nastala je slavenska riječ car (kod Rusa i Bugara ona ujedno znači i kralj), a kod Nijemaca riječ Kaiser.
Osobna, odnosno obiteljska imena
Kod Rimljana je postojalo trojstvo u strukturi osobnih imena: "predime" (praenomen), obiteljsko ime (nomen gentile) i "prezime", npr. PVBLIVS LICINIVS GALLIENUS: Publius-predime (danas faktično ime), Licinius-obiteljsko ime (identično prezimenu), Gallienus-prezime (točnije nadimak). Obiteljsko ime cara često otpada na novcu. Tako znameniti car Trajan nikad ne stavlja na novcu pred svoje "prezime" obiteljsko ime ULPIUS. Obiteljsko ime na novcu održava se na rimskim novcima redovno do Konstantina I. Velikog. Zatim se ono javlja sporadično sve do zadnjeg člana Konstantinove obitelji dinastije Julijana Apostate, a onda nestaje prepuštajući mjesto samo "prezimenu" ( od Jovijana do Honorija). No već od polovice III st.n.e. javljaju se osobito na novcima malog formata radi skučenosti prostora imena careva u najskraćenijem obliku, to jest samo u prezimenu: Gallienus, Claudius, Aurelianus, Pro-bus. Na malobrojnim kasnorimskim novcima javljaju se od Placidija Valentinijana III. ponovno "imena" uz obavezna "prezimena". Npr.: Petronius Maximus, Julius Maiorianus, Libius Severus i Julius Nepos.
Sve što je ovdje rečeno za careve vrijedi i za carice. Imena carica redovno su reducirana na "prezimena" i to od Agripine do Komodove žene Krispine. Drevni prizvuk ima kod tih carica ime muža kao dodatak prezimenu: PLOTINA AUG(usta) IMP(eratoria) TRAIAN. Koncem II. i tokom čitavog III.st. uvode se na novcima carica obiteljska prezimena. Od Manlije Skantile preko Otacilije Severe i Herenije Etruscile do ljupke Magnije Urbike čitav niz carica nosi na novcima svoja obiteljska imena. U V.st.n.e. carice (osobito istočnorimske) nose pred svojim prezimenom tobožnje individualno ime AEL(ia).
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| VR-800 Omnitron |
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Poslato od: admin - 19-11-2011, 10:59 PM - Forum: Skeneri, georadari, LRL i ostale stvari
- Odgovora (33)
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Zamolio bih cenjene kolege da prokomentarišu ovu stvarčicu!
Fig. 1: Complete VR-800.
The VR-800 is a so-called long-range locator (LRL) made by Dell Systems of Haines City, FL. LRL's are a class of devices that claim to have the ability to locate certain things from a distance, usually 100's of feet up to miles. Most, if not all, utilize dowsing rods or a similar swivel-mounted dowsing device to make the indication during use. The VR-800 is no exception, and comes with a pair of dowsing rods in addition to the main transmit box, ground probes, and two small, belt-mount units. Fig. 1 shows all the components.
The theory of LRL operation is to transmit a signal into the ground that will excite the distant buried target. A "signal line" is established between the transmitter and the target, and the dowsing rods are used to detect and track the signal line. Because the receiving half of the VR-800 is just a pair of simple dowsing rods, it stands to reason that the transmitter half somehow justifies the suggested retail price of $1995. Let's start with a look at the transmit box.
The face of the transmitter is shown in Fig. 2. There is a power switch, a 6-way target (frequency) selection switch with corresponding LED's, a fine-adjustment knob, and a pair of signal output jacks. On the back side is a battery compartment which holds 4 C-cells. The 6-way switch selects the transmit frequency for copper, silver, gold, lead, tin, and diamond. The fine-adjustment knob further varies the frequency, although there is no clear indication as to what the numbers around the knob mean. Assuming that the "0" position is a nominal setting, then fully counter-clockwise ("4") is a minimum adjustment and fully clockwise (also "4") is a maximum adjustment. The frequencies (in Hertz) were found to be:
Nominal Range
Copper 295 275-336
Silver 466 417-577
Gold 612 530-817
Lead 787 656-1169
Tin 487 433-610
Diamond 550 482-710
The inside of the transmit box is shown in Fig. 3, with the inside of the front panel in Fig. 4. Besides the switches and LED's on the front panel there is a hand-wired circuit board glued to the bottom half of the box, shown in Fig. 5. The circuit board used is known as "perf board", a type normally used for prototyping circuits and commonly available at Radio Shack. The circuitry is a "555" timer chip wired as a pulse oscillator with 6 trim potentiometers that set the frequency, depending on which is switched in by the front panel switch. A complete schematic is shown in Fig. 6 - the unmarked potentiometers are 100k that are adjusted to achieve the final frequencies.
Fig. 3: Inside of the transmitter unit.
Fig. 4: Inside of the transmitter front panel.
Fig. 5: Transmitter circuit board.
Fig. 6: Schematic.
The 555 pulse output is connected to one of the output jacks through a decoupling capacitor, with the other jack connected to the circuit ground. The decoupling cap has the effect of blocking DC while still allowing the pulse to go through. The pulse duty cycle is very large, around 95%, meaning that 95% of the time it is in a "high" state and 5% of the time it in a "low" state. Because of the decoupling capacitor and the extremely short pulse width, the output signal appears to be nearly zero most (95%) of the time, with short negative-going pulses. Thus, the RMS signal (effective signal power) delivered to the ground probes is exceedingly small, around 1 volt rms.
The analysis so far has been for unloaded (open-circuit) ground probes. In operation, the ground probe wires are plugged into the panel jacks, and the probes are inserted into the ground. The probe wires are made from common zip cord, which is separated enough so that the probes can be inserted into the soil no more than 8 inches apart. Depending on moisture, the soil will resistively load the transmitter outputs. This will have two effects, one being that the decoupling capacitor will interact with the resistive load to cause severe signal decay and distortion. The second is that the 555 timer chip alone is not designed to drive much of anything, and the output pulse is further degraded by the chip's inability to drive the ground resistance (there is no drive amplifier in the VR-800).
Dell Systems claims the VR-800 utilizes "Harmonic Induction Technology" (HID), and the advertising claims that frequency selection is "micro processor" controlled and can be "reprogrammed" for other elements. In fact, the manual for the "Weight Chek" accessory (described below) says of the HID concept: "This [Harmonic Induction Discrimination technology] was an extremely light "Micro Processor" with only three basic components, a computer chip, a timer, and a selector and the secret of being able to program the chip with the timed, synchronized transmission of frequencies of any chemical element... [It] produced three (3) timed frequencies responding to the electron, neutron and atomic weight of the element."
The use of the word "Harmonic" implies that the transmitted signal contains harmonics - this is basically true, since a pulse does have significant harmonic energy. The term "Induction" implies that the transmitted signal inductively couples with the target in some manner, which gets back to the idea of signal lines as mentioned above. But the notion of generating a signal line - with the fundamental frequency and/or any of its harmonics - to a distant target is false. Even if signal lines were not pure fantasy, with only the 555 driving closely spaced ground probes through a decoupling capacitor, the delivered output power is negligible. The claim that a "micro processor" is used to control frequency selection is entirely false; there is no microprocessor or computer chip, or anything that even remotely resembles one. The claim that there are 3 timed frequencies responding to the electron, neutron and atomic weight of the element is also false. There is only one pulse waveform, therefore only one fundamental frequency, plus its mathematical harmonics, all of which have nothing to do electrons, neutrons, or atomic weight (there is no such thing as a "neutron frequency" anyway).
The pulse frequency, as mentioned before, is variable over a wide range of values for any given setting of the element selector switch. Interestingly, there is quite a bit of overlap in the frequency ranges, further debasing the claims that the MFD frequencies are tuned to the resonant frequencies of certain elements. For example, on this unit the adjustment range for gold (530-817 Hz) overlaps the ranges for silver, lead, tin, and diamond. There is no way to know what frequency is being transmitted regardless of what the selector switch is set to.
Fig. 7: Belt units.
I mentioned two belt-mount units - they're shown in Fig. 7 and both require a 9v battery. The first is what Dell Systems calls an "Anomaly Qualifier Check" (AQC), or "Weight Chek". It has a 1/8" headphone-type jack that the rods plug into via wires, a power switch, LED, and potentiometer. The inside of the AQC unit is shown in Fig. 8, and the schematic is almost identical to the main transmitter except there is no 6-position switch. Instead, the frequency is set only by the adjustment knob so it has a continuous frequency adjustment. Also like the transmitter the output signal is capacitively coupled so at least there is no danger of shorting the rods together and damaging the circuit. When the unit is turned on the LED blinks, but not at the same frequency as the output pulse. Apparently the LED is a self-blinking type.
Fig. 8: Inside the AQC.
The advertising claims that the AQC is used to null out weak target signals, thereby eliminating "micron-sized" (invisible) gold particles. It says it can also be used to determine the size of a target, by progressively turning the knob until the rods cease to respond. The adjustment knob is only calibrated as "Ounces" and "Pounds" so I'm not sure know how you would read the position. The Weight Chek manual has some other interesting claims. It says "Weight Chek cycles 92 of the commonly used frequencies within the KHZ range then senses and locks on to the frequency used by the MFD." This is entirely false - the unit outputs a pulse whose frequency is set by the user; it does not "cycle 92 frequencies," it does not sense anything the MFD is doing, and it does not lock on to the MFD transmit frequency
Fig. 9: Inside the MWGR.
The other belt-mount unit is called a "Magnetic Wave Guide Receiver". Like the AQC, it has a 1/8" headphone jack that the rods plug into; it also has a momentary push-button switch and an LED. When you push the switch, the LED turns on. The inside of the Magnetic Wave Guide Receiver is shown in Fig. 9. Besides lighting the LED, the only thing the switch does is short the dowsing rods together. If you touch the dowsing rods together, the LED also turns on. I'm not sure why the user of the VR-800 needs a battery powered box to short the rods together, or why he would need an LED to tell him that the rods are shorted. A final interesting feature of this unit is the bar magnet that is glued inside the box. It is not connected to anything, or seemingly used for anything, just sitting there. There are no advertising claims I've been able to find on this accessory, so I cannot comment on what it's supposed to do, other than to say it doesn't do much.
The remaining pieces of the VR-800 are the ground probes and the dowsing rods, as well as a carrying case. The ground probes are shown in Fig. 10, along with one disassembled. They are made of common PVC pipe fittings and 1/4 brass rods. It is obvious that the quality of construction is extremely poor and can easily be exceeded by any reasonably competent handyman. The dowsing rods are shown in Fig. 11 with an inset showing details of the inside of the handle; these are made from common copper pipe and fittings, plus 1/4" brass rods. Again, poor quality is evident and better rods can easily be made for very little money.
Fig. 10: Ground probes.
Fig. 11: Dowsing rods.
Dell Winders, owner of Dell Systems, maintains a web site (www.treasureamerica.com) with some discussion forums for LRLs. One of those forums is for "product reviews", so I posted my findings on the VR-800. Dell replied that basically he was unaware what circuitry was inside the VR-800 even though he was selling them with his name on them. But he then admitted that a later unit, the "GS Pro", has essentially the same circuitry as the VR-800.
As for cost, the VR-800 currently retails for $1995. This particular unit was originally purchased for $1675 with the AQC unit costing an extra $595, for a total of $2270. The circuitry in the transmitter, including all the LEDs, pots, and switches for implementing 6 frequencies, but excluding the case, can be built for about $12 with parts from Radio Shack. I was unable to price the exact case but a similar sized case from Radio Shack is $8. The Weight Chek unit can be made for about $10, including the case. The Magnetic Wave Guide Receiver can be made for $6 including the case. Using commonly available hardware from the local home improvement store, the L-rods and ground probes will cost about $8 for materials. So the entire setup can be made for less than $50.
In summary, the VR-800 is an extremely poor design with amateurish construction. The transmitter outputs a signal which radically changes with soil conditions and does not have the capacity to drive the signal to anywhere near the claimed distance of 1 mile. Even adding an output power amp and matching the output impedance to the ground will only result in signal transmitted for maybe tens of feet, not miles. The frequency setting is arbitrary and has no meaning. The Weight Chek unit is of similar poor design and does not even come close to doing what is claimed of it. The Magnetic Wave Guide Receiver is just a shorting switch and serves no apparent useful function. In the end, most, if not all, of the technical and performance claims of this unit are blatantly false.
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